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I collected more than 17 lists of the greatest or most important scientific discoveries of all time and combined them into one list — here are the results. The numbers in bold and underlined indicate the number of lists the scientific discovery was on. I have provided some information on the nature of the discovery and the identities of the discovers.

As with inventions, the discovery is often one link in a chain of scientific work that extends before and after the discovery in time, or is a collaboration sometimes rivalry among multiple discoverers. Also, for some reason, history sometimes identifies the discoverer as the person who first hypothesized the correct answer to a question, while in other cases, the credit goes to the person who confirmed the hypothesis by experiments or observations.

I have also provided images of the scientists or their discoveries where available and where the narrative for one discovery mentions another discovery, I have placed it in boldface. For a chronological timeline of every discovery on two or more lists, go here. It was not until the careful research of William Gilbert England in that electricity became a subject of scientific study. Otto von Guericke Germany made the first static electricity generator in Stephen Gray England discovered the conduction of electricity in The Leyden Jar, the first capacitor, was invented independently in in Germany and The Netherlands.

Henry Cavendish England measured conductivity of materials in Benjamin Franklin US discovered that lightning is a form of electricity in Luigi Galvani Italy discovered the electrical basis of nerve impulses in Alessandro Volta Italy invented the electric battery in Beginning in , Michael Faraday England discovered electromagnetic induction , diamagnetism and electrolysis and invented the first current-generating electric generator , or dynamo. Joseph Henry US discovered induction at about the same time.

James Clerk Maxwell England linked electricity, magnetism and light in in a series of mathematical equations.

In , Werner von Siemens Germany invented an industrial generator that did not need external magnetic power. In , Thomas Edison US built the first large-scale electrical supply network , which provided volts of direct current DC to 59 homes in Manhattan.

AC eventually prevailed over DC. Newton was not the first to recognize the existence of gravity and the famous falling apple story is probably apocryphal. In , Thomas Hunt Morgan determined that genes are located on chromosomes.

In , experiments by Frederick Griffith UK showed that traits could be transferred from one type of organism to another. The double helix structure, with paired nucleotide bases forming the rungs between the two strands, perfectly explains how DNA replicates during mitosis. James Watson b. Archimedes suggested a heliocentric universe in BCE.

In the 16 th Century, it was a tenet of Christian doctrine that the Earth was a stationary globe, around which the sun, the planets and the stars revolved, and it was heresy to say otherwise. As early as , astronomer and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus Poland became convinced through his observations and mathematical calculations that the Earth and other planets revolved around the sun, not the other way around.

He held off publishing his results until just before his death in , for fear of reprisals. The Copernican model, which posited circular orbits, was revised by Johannes Kepler Germany , who discovered that the orbits of the planets were ellipses, in his laws of planetary motion.

It was then possible to derive relationships between the properties of the elements and to predict the existence, nature and properties of then-unknown elements. The result of such a system, over a long period of time, would be the generation of new species.

Although Darwin first formulated the theory in , he was afraid to publish, fearing the reaction to a theory based essentially on chance. Instead, he spent the next 20 years collecting evidence to support his conclusions.

He drafted a comprehensive essay on the matter in , but did not publish it. In , Darwin published The Origin of Species , which set out the evidence behind his theory. The theory of evolution by means of natural selection is now the fundamental premise of the science of biology. An photograph of Charles Darwin X-RAYS Researchers first noticed unidentified rays emanating from experimental discharge tubes called Crookes tubes around Fernando Sanford US generated and detected the rays in Problems with the cold cathode tubes used to generate X-rays led to the invention of the Coolidge tube by William D.

Coolidge US in The theory explains how objects behave when moving at a constant speed relative to each other. Einstein relied on the principles that a the law of physics remain the same despite your frame of reference; and b the speed of light is the same to all observers.

Under the theory, space and time are two aspects of the same phenomenon, meaning that reality has four dimensions instead of three. A key implication of the special theory of relativity is that time slows down as acceleration increases, a fact that has been proven many times by experiment.

A photograph of Albert Einstein in about In the discovery by Keith Runcorn UK and Warren Carey Australia that paleomagnetic stripes on the seafloor emanated from the mid-ocean ridges provided a clue to a continental drift mechanism.

Further support for the theory was found in the work of Allan Cox US on the magnetization of lava; W. Since the mids, continental drift has been subsumed within the more comprehensive plate tectonics theory. A graphic depiction of some of the fossil evidence supporting the continental drift theory.

In , Arthur Eddington and Frank W. The general theory of relativity makes many predictions, including the ex panding universe , and the existence of black holes and gravitational waves.

A photograph of Albert Einstein Moyer US developed a method of manufacturing penicillin as a drug in Dorothy Hodgkin UK discovered the structure of the penicillin molecule in The first antibiotic , penicillin proved to be effective against many serious diseases caused by bacterial infections. A photograph of Alexander Fleming Simon Stevin Flanders , for example, showed in that two balls — one ten times heavier than the other — hit the ground at the same time when dropped 30 feet from a Delft church tower.

In , while teaching at the University of Pisa, Galileo Galilei Italy not only performed similar experiments, but he also derived the mathematical equations to explain the phenomenon, as well as the acceleration of falling bodies and the phenomena of inertia and friction. He elaborated on his theories in and publications.

The story that Galileo proved the theory by dropping balls from the Leaning Tower of Pisa is told by his pupil Vincenzo Viviani but may not be true, as Galileo preferred to experiment by rolling balls down an inclined board to reduce air resistance and simplify measurements.

A portrait of Galileo Galilei by Giusto Sustermans. He devised the first two laws in 1 The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the two foci; and 2 A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal time intervals.

In , Kepler discovered a third law: 3 The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

A portrait of Johannes Kepler Michael Servetus Spain published important discoveries about pulmonary circulation in A portrait of William Harvey OXYGEN Carl Wilhelm Scheele Sweden was the first to create oxygen gas and identify it as a separate element in , although he did not publish his discovery until Joseph Priestley England isolated oxygen in ; because he published his findings in , he is generally acknowledged as the discoverer.

Prior to Scheele and Priestley, 16 th Century scientist Robert Boyle Ireland determined that air was necessary for combustion and John Mayow England discovered that only a portion of the air was necessary for combustion and respiration. Research in the 17 th and 18 th centuries was slowed by the erroneous phlogiston theory, which held that when a substance burned it released phlogiston into the air, and the reason some substances burned more completely than others was that they consisted of a higher proportion of phlogiston.

Although Antoine Laurent Lavoisier France claimed that he also discovered oxygen in , most historians dispute it. Lavoisier did discover the nature of combustion and conducted important experiments on oxidation. His work also definitively disproved the phlogiston theory. An engraved portrait of Carl Wilhelm Scheele There is also evidence that inoculation was practiced in Turkey in the early 18th Century.

Although there is some evidence that vaccination for smallpox occurred in England in the s, Dr. Jenner took pus from the blisters of farm workers infected with cowpox, a disease similar to but less lethal than smallpox, and exposed uninfected patients to it, making them immune to smallpox.

In , Louis Pasteur weakened or killed anthrax and rabies pathogens and vaccinated French citizens with great success. Vaccination became a common form of disease prevention, and vaccines have been developed for numerous other diseases, such as the polio vaccine. American microbiologist Maurice Hilleman developed 36 successful vaccines in the s and s for such diseases as measles, mumps, hepatitis A and B, chicken pox, meningitis and pneumonia.

An engraving taken from an portrait of Edward Jenner In the process of emitting radiation, the atom changes from one element to another. Henri Becquerel France discovered the radioactivity of uranium in ; he recognized the phenomenon was different from the recently discovered X-rays.

In , Marie and Pierre Curie France identified radium and polonium, two more radioactive elements. Pierre Curie classified alpha and beta particle radiation in Paul Ulrich Villard France discovered a third type of radiation in , which Rutherford called gamma rays. The dangerous effects of radiation exposure to humans were not identified until much later.

Marie Curie herself died of an illness that was probably related to her frequent exposure to radioactivity. A photograph of Henri Becquerel In , German physicist Max Planck explained the results of his studies of light emission and absorption by theorizing that light and other forms of electromagnetic energy could only be emitted in quantized form, or quanta, which would later be renamed photons. In , Albert Einstein Germany explained the photoelectric effect identified by Heinrich Hertz in by postulating that light is made of individual quantum particles.

Einstein also used quantum principles to explain the specific heat of solids. In , Niels Bohr Denmark revised the model of atomic structure to explain the atomic spectra by incorporating quantum energy states into the electron orbits. In the following years Arnold Sommerfeld Germany further developed quantum theory. A photograph of Max Planck Marsden UK , who scattered alpha particles using thin films of heavy metals, providing evidence that atoms possessed a discrete nucleus.